̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge - ̽��ֱ�� of Melbourne

Flight path to net zero

plc32 — Sun, 22 Sep 2024 22:18:18 +0000

Global aviation could be on a flight path to net zero if industry and governments reach just four goals by 2030, according to a new report from the ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge.

Cuckoos evolve to look like their hosts - and form new species in the process

jg533 — Thu, 30 May 2024 18:05:07 +0000

̽��ֱ��theory of coevolution says that when closely interacting species drive evolutionary changes in each other this can lead to speciation - the evolution of new species. But until now, real-world evidence for this has been scarce.

Now a team of researchers has found evidence that coevolution is linked to speciation by studying the evolutionary arms race between cuckoos and the host birds they exploit.

Bronze-cuckoos lay their eggs in the nests of small songbirds. Soon after the cuckoo chick hatches, it pushes the host’s eggs out of the nest. ̽��ֱ��host not only loses all its own eggs, but spends several weeks rearing the cuckoo, which takes up valuable time when it could be breeding itself.

Each species of bronze-cuckoo closely matches the appearance of their host’s chicks, fooling the host parents into accepting the cuckoo.

̽��ֱ��study shows how these interactions can cause new species to arise when a cuckoo species exploits several different hosts. If chicks of each host species have a distinct appearance, and hosts reject odd-looking nestlings, then the cuckoo species diverges into separate genetic lineages, each mimicking the chicks of its favoured host. These new lineages are the first sign of new species emerging.

̽��ֱ��study is published today in the journal Science.

“This exciting new finding could potentially apply to any pairs of species that are in battle with each other. Just as we’ve seen with the cuckoo, the coevolutionary arms race could cause new species to emerge - and increase biodiversity on our planet,” said Professor Kilner in the ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge’s Department of Zoology, a co-author of the report.

̽��ֱ��striking differences between the chicks of different bronze-cuckoo lineages correspond to subtle differences in the plumage and calls of the adults, which help males and females that specialise on the same host to recognise and pair with each other.

“Cuckoos are very costly to their hosts, so hosts have evolved the ability to recognise and eject cuckoo chicks from their nests,’’ said Professor Naomi Langmore at the Australian National ̽��ֱ��, Canberra, lead author of the study.

She added: “Only the cuckoos that most resemble the host’s own chicks have any chance of escaping detection, so over many generations the cuckoo chicks have evolved to mimic the host chicks.”

̽��ֱ��study revealed that coevolution is most likely to drive speciation when the cuckoos are very costly to their hosts, leading to a ‘coevolutionary arms race’ between host defences and cuckoo counter-adaptations.

A broad scale analysis across all cuckoo species found that those lineages that are most costly to their hosts have higher speciation rates than less costly cuckoo species and their non-parasitic relatives.

“This finding is significant in evolutionary biology, showing that coevolution between interacting species increases biodiversity by driving speciation,” said Dr Clare Holleley at the Australian National Wildlife Collection within CSIRO, Canberra, senior author of the report.

̽��ֱ��study was made possible by the team’s breakthrough in extracting DNA from eggshells in historical collections, and sequencing it for genetic studies.

̽��ֱ��researchers were then able to combine two decades of behavioural fieldwork with DNA analysis of specimens of eggs and birds held in museums and collections.

̽��ֱ��study involved an international team of researchers at the ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge, Australian National ̽��ֱ��, CSIRO (Australia’s national science agency), and the ̽��ֱ�� of Melbourne. It was funded by the Australian Research Council.

Reference: Langmore, N E et al: ‘Coevolution with hosts underpins speciation in brood-parasitic cuckoos.’ Science, May 2024. DOI: 10.1126/science.adj3210

Adapted from a press release by the Australian National ̽��ֱ��.

Two decades of cuckoo research have helped scientists to explain how battles between species can cause new species to arise

This exciting new finding could potentially apply to any pairs of species that are in battle with each other...the coevolutionary arms race could cause new species to emerge - and increase biodiversity on our planet

Rebecca Kilner

Mark Lethlean

Male wren (left) brings food to a cuckoo fledgling (right)

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Climate action scholarships for small island nation students launched in partnership with HRH ̽��ֱ��Prince of Wales

sb726 — Mon, 14 Mar 2022 00:00:17 +0000

̽��ֱ��climate action awards are being launched to coincide with Commonwealth Day, and recognise the disproportionate effects of climate change on Small Island Developing States (SIDS), many of which are part of the Commonwealth.

Working with HRH ̽��ֱ��Prince of Wales, Professor Stephen Toope, Vice-Chancellor of the ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge, developed the initiative that will widen access by supporting students on courses that engage with sustainability, helping them develop their existing skills and knowledge to address the effects of climate change in the countries they come from.

“Climate change is a global challenge and we all have a role to play, as individuals and as organisations,” said Professor Toope. “ ̽��ֱ�� ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge is responding to the climate emergency on many fronts – through research and policy expertise, and by developing solutions that work for our lives and for our planet. ̽��ֱ��launch of these new scholarships, in partnership with HRH ̽��ֱ��Prince of Wales, who has long been a champion of environmental causes, is an extension of our ongoing commitment.

“ ̽��ֱ��students who these new scholarships are aimed at are likely to have experienced first-hand the severe effects of climate change, including flooding and erosion in their own countries and communities. These awards will support their vital work around climate change, which will undoubtedly have an added and hugely personal significance for them. ̽��ֱ��alumni of the programme will form a cohort of talented people who will become future leaders and ambassadors in sustainability.”

̽��ֱ��programme will see scholarships provided at the ̽��ֱ�� of Toronto, the ̽��ֱ�� of Melbourne, McMaster ̽��ֱ�� and the ̽��ֱ�� of Montreal, which along with the ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge have come together to address this critical issue.

In Cambridge, the programme of awards will be offered by the Cambridge Trust, which will be awarding 10 fully-funded ‘HRH ̽��ֱ��Prince of Wales Commonwealth Scholarships’ over the next two years, with the first recipients expected to take up their places at the ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge in October 2022.

̽��ֱ��Cambridge Trust was established in the 1980s with the specific objective of providing scholarships to students from the Commonwealth and wider world who lacked the means to fund their studies at the ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge. His Royal Highness ̽��ֱ��Prince of Wales, himself a Cambridge alumnus having graduated from Trinity College in 1970, has been involved in the work of the Trust for many years, serving as Patron since 2010.

Back in 2018, in celebration of the 70th anniversary of the modern Commonwealth and to mark ̽��ֱ��Prince of Wales’ 70th birthday, the Cambridge Trust launched a programme of His Royal Highness ̽��ֱ��Prince of Wales Scholarships. ̽��ֱ��scholarships funded ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge postgraduate applicants from Commonwealth nations whose studies focused on practical themes affecting the future of those nations, such as climate change, the blue economy and sustainability. As part of the three-year programme, 20 fully-funded scholarships were awarded to applicants from around the Commonwealth, for both Masters and PhD studies.

̽��ֱ��Trust was delighted to be able to continue this work by joining this new initiative.

Speaking about the scheme, Helen Pennant, the Trust’s Director, said: “I hope that these scholarships will make a difference both to the students who receive them and to their countries as they grapple with the many challenges of climate change. I would like to thank HRH ̽��ֱ��Prince of Wales for his support of this important initiative.”

Scholarships at Cambridge will be available to students:

•   who are citizens of or normally resident in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) as defined by the United Nations;
•   who hold a conditional offer of admission to the ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge
•   studying at postgraduate level for a Masters degree or PhD;
•   pursuing courses in subjects that engage with sustainability and climate change

̽��ֱ��HRH Prince of Wales Commonwealth Scholarship is fully-funded and will include tuition fees and maintenance.

For more information, contact the Cambridge Trust

Students from small island nations will be supported in their work to address climate change through new scholarships inspired by His Royal Highness ̽��ֱ��Prince of Wales and announced today by the Universities of Cambridge, Toronto, Melbourne, McMaster and Montreal.

̽��ֱ��alumni of the programme will form a cohort of talented people who will become future leaders and ambassadors in sustainability.

Professor Stephen Toope, Vice-Chancellor

Photo by NASA on Unsplash

̽��ֱ��text in this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Images, including our videos, are Copyright © ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge and licensors/contributors as identified. All rights reserved. We make our image and video content available in a number of ways – as here, on our main website under its Terms and conditions, and on a range of channels including social media that permit your use and sharing of our content under their respective Terms.

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Abrupt changes in Earth’s past climate occurred synchronously

cmm201 — Thu, 20 Aug 2020 18:00:00 +0000

̽��ֱ��Last Glacial Period, between 115,000 and 11,700 years ago, was punctuated by a series of severe climate changes: warm periods where temperatures in Greenland spiked by 8-16°C over the course of a decade.

Data from the Greenland and Antarctic ice cores suggests that these warming events, known as Greenland Interstadials, occurred at least 25 times over this period. Their imprint has also been observed in climate records collected from mid to low latitudes, leading scientists to question whether these widespread changes were simultaneous, or whether warming in some regions lagged behind others.

But resolving this question has proved challenging because precisely dated records of past climate are relatively rare. And dating is key. If scientists could exactly pinpoint the relative timing of warming in different regions, they could answer whether the climate changed synchronously.

̽��ֱ��study, published in the journal Science and led by ̽��ֱ�� of Melbourne PhD student Ellen Corrick, uses detailed climate data from stalagmites (speleothems) to compare the timing of climate changes between regions. Stalagmites take in detailed information on regional temperature and rainfall as they grow, and they can also be dated accurately, often to decadal resolution, using the uranium-thorium technique.

Corrick compiled climate data from 63 speleothem records collected from caves across Asia, Europe and South America - a dataset amounting to 20 years’ of published research from scientific teams around the world. ̽��ֱ��onset of many Greenland Interstadials was clearly recognisable in the speleothem data, each event marked by a shift in the contents of stable oxygen isotope, δ18O.

To test if the changes were synchronous, the team used statistical methods to compare the age of onset for the interstadials. Once they were sure that intraregional changes were simultaneous, the team looked at the relative timing of interstadials between Asia, Europe and South America. ̽��ֱ��wider comparison showed that, out of the 25 interstadials studied, 23 were synchronous.

According to co-author Professor Eric Wolff from Cambridge’s Department of Earth Sciences, the findings “provide confirmation of a persistent but, until now, unsubstantiated assumption that climate changes between the tropics and the Arctic were synchronous.”

̽��ֱ��team went on to compare their speleothem data with model simulations of future abrupt climate changes. “An interesting feature of this study is how well the climate model outputs agree with the stalagmite data. This gives us increased confidence in the climate models we’ve built,” said co-authro Professor Xu Zhang from Lanzhou ̽��ֱ�� China, who conducted model experiments at the Alfred Wegener Institute in Germany.

̽��ֱ��findings shed light on the patterns and timing of these warming phases, also known as Dansgaard-Oeschger events. But their cause, whether external factors, such the ice sheet height, greenhouse gases, meltwater and volcanism, or internal oscillations in Atlantic Ocean circulation, remains, as yet, an open question.

Reference:
E. Corrick et al. ‘Synchronous timing of abrupt climate changes during the last glacial period.’ Science (2020). DOI: 10.1126/science.aay5538

Adapted from a press release by ̽��ֱ�� ̽��ֱ�� of Melbourne

A study from the Universities of Cambridge and Melbourne has found that the onset of past climate changes was synchronous over an area extending from the Arctic to the low latitudes.

These findings provide confirmation of a persistent but, until now, unsubstantiated assumption that climate changes between the tropics and the Arctic were synchronous

Eric Wolff

Ellen Corrick, ̽��ֱ�� of Melbourne

Speleothems in the Corchia Cave, Central Italy

Yes

Cellulose: new understanding could lead to tailored biofuels

fpjl2 — Thu, 09 Jun 2016 09:38:08 +0000

Scientists have identified new steps in the way plants produce cellulose, the component of plant cell walls that provides strength, and forms insoluble fibre in the human diet.

̽��ֱ��findings could lead to improved production of cellulose and guide plant breeding for specific uses such as wood products and ethanol fuel, which are sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel-based products.

Published in the journal Nature Communications today, the work was conducted by an international team of scientists, led by the ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge and the ̽��ֱ�� of Melbourne.

"Our research identified several proteins that are essential in the assembly of the protein machinery that makes cellulose," said Melbourne's Prof Staffan Persson.

“We found that these assembly factors control how much cellulose is made, and so plants without them can not produce cellulose very well and the defect substantially impairs plant biomass production. ̽��ֱ��ultimate aim of this research would be breed plants that have altered activity of these proteins so that cellulose production can be improved for the range of applications that use cellulose including paper, timber and ethanol fuels."

̽��ֱ��newly discovered proteins are located in an intracellular compartment called the Golgi where proteins are sorted and modified.

“If the function of this protein family is abolished the cellulose synthesizing complexes become stuck in the Golgi and have problems reaching the cell surface where they normally are active” said the lead authors of the study, Drs. Yi Zhang (Max-Planck Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology) and Nino Nikolovski ( ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge).

“We therefore named the new proteins STELLO, which is Greek for to set in place, and deliver.”

“ ̽��ֱ��findings are important to understand how plants produce their biomass,” said Professor Paul Dupree from the ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge's Department of Biochemistry.

“Greenhouse-gas emissions from cellulosic ethanol, which is derived from the biomass of plants, are estimated to be roughly 85 percent less than from fossil fuel sources. Research to understand cellulose production in plants is therefore an important part of climate change mitigation.”

“In addition, by using cellulosic plant materials we get around the problem of food-versus-fuel scenario that is problematic when using corn as a basis for bioethanol.”

“It is therefore of great importance to find genes and mechanisms that can improve cellulose production in plants so that we can tailor cellulose production for various needs.”

Previous studies by Profs. Persson’s and Dupree’s research groups have, together with other scientists, identified many proteins that are important for cellulose synthesis and for other cell wall polymers.

With the newly presented research they substantially increase our understanding for how the bulk of a plant’s biomass is produced and is therefore of vast importance to industrial applications.

̽��ֱ��work was funded, in part, by the BBSRC and was conducted with the BBSRC Sustainable Bioenergy Centre Cell Wall Sugars Programme.

Adapted from a ̽��ֱ�� of Melbourne press release.

In the search for low emission plant-based fuels, new research may help avoid having to choose between growing crops for food or fuel.

By using cellulosic plant materials we get around the problem of food-versus-fuel scenario that is problematic when using corn as a basis for bioethanol

Paul Dupree

Nino Nikolovski and Paul Dupree

Arabidopsis seeds exude slime that is attached to the seed by cellulose. On the left is a seed with normal slime stained pink, but on the right, in the stello mutant, the slime is lost because the cellulose is missing.

̽��ֱ��text in this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. For image use please see separate credits above.

Yes

Using experts ‘inexpertly’ leads to policy failure, warn researchers

fpjl2 — Wed, 14 Oct 2015 17:14:26 +0000

̽��ֱ��accuracy and reliability of expert advice is often compromised by “cognitive frailties”, and needs to be interrogated with the same tenacity as research data to avoid weak and ill-informed policy, warn two leading risk analysis and conservation researchers in the journal Nature today.

While many governments aspire to evidence-based policy, the researchers say the evidence on experts themselves actually shows that they are highly susceptible to “subjective influences” – from individual values and mood, to whether they stand to gain or lose from a decision – and, while highly credible, experts often vastly overestimate their objectivity and the reliability of peers.

̽��ֱ��researchers caution that conventional approaches of informing policy by seeking advice from either well-regarded individuals or assembling expert panels needs to be balanced with methods that alleviate the effects of psychological and motivational bias.

They offer a straightforward framework for improving expert advice, and say that experts should provide and assess evidence on which decisions are made – but not advise decision makers directly, which can skew impartiality.

“We are not advocating replacing evidence with expert judgements, rather we suggest integrating and improving them,” write professors William Sutherland and Mark Burgman from the universities of Cambridge and Melbourne respectively.

“Policy makers use expert evidence as though it were data. So they should treat expert estimates with the same critical rigour that must be applied to data,” they write.

“Experts must be tested, their biases minimised, their accuracy improved, and their estimates validated with independent evidence. Put simply, experts should be held accountable for their opinions.”

Sutherland and Burgman point out that highly regarded experts are routinely shown to be no better than novices at making judgements.

However, several processes have been shown to improve performances across the spectrum, they say, such as ‘horizon scanning’ – identifying all possible changes and threats – and ‘solution scanning’ – listing all possible options, using both experts and evidence, to reduce the risk of overlooking valuable alternatives.

To get better answers from experts, they need better, more structured questions, say the authors. “A seemingly straightforward question, ‘How many diseased animals are there in the area?’ for example, could be interpreted very differently by different people. Does it include those that are infectious and those that have recovered? What about those yet to be identified?” said Sutherland, from Cambridge’s Department of Zoology.

“Structured question formats that extract upper and lower boundaries, degrees of confidence and force consideration of alternative theories are important for shoring against slides into group-think, or individuals getting ascribed greater credibility based on appearance or background,” he said.

When seeking expert advice, all parties must be clear about what they expect of each other, says Burgman, Director of the Centre of Excellence for Biosecurity Risk Analysis. “Are policy makers expecting estimates of facts, predictions of the outcome of events, or advice on the best course of action?”

“Properly managed, experts can help with estimates and predictions, but providing advice assumes the expert shares the same values and objectives as the decision makers. Experts need to stick to helping provide and assess evidence on which such decisions are made,” he said.

Sutherland and Burgman have created a framework of eight key ways to improve the advice of experts. These include using groups – not individuals – with diverse, carefully selected members well within their expertise areas.

They also caution against being bullied or “starstruck” by the over-assertive or heavyweight. “People who are less self-assured will seek information from a more diverse range of sources, and age, number of qualifications and years of experience do not explain an expert’s ability to predict future events – a finding that applies in studies from geopolitics to ecology,” said Sutherland.

Added Burgman: “Some experts are much better than others at estimation and prediction. However, the only way to tell a good expert from a poor one is to test them. Qualifications and experience don’t help to tell them apart.”

“ ̽��ֱ��cost of ignoring these techniques – of using experts inexpertly – is less accurate information and so more frequent, and more serious, policy failures,” write the researchers.

Evidence shows that experts are frequently fallible, say leading risk researchers, and policy makers should not act on expert advice without using rigorous methods that balance subjective distortions inherent in expert estimates.

̽��ֱ��cost of ignoring these techniques – of using experts inexpertly – is less accurate information and so more frequent, and more serious, policy failures

William Sutherland and Mark Burgman

Ross Mayfield

Experts Only

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Twenty top tips for interpreting scientific claims

sj387 — Thu, 21 Nov 2013 07:58:54 +0000

Scientists from the UK and Australia, concerned with the lack of scientific knowledge amongst key decision makers, have created 20 concepts to help those who interact regularly with science and scientists.

Recent issues such as nuclear power, bee declines, and the role of badgers in bovine tuberculosis have seen fierce debates and policy decisions being made without the support of the scientific community, something Professors William Sutherland, David Spiegelhalter and Mark Burgman have set out to change.

These scientists want to help people grasp the “imperfect nature of science” and enable policy-makers to interrogate their advisers and experts instead of simply accepting information as it is given. Though change will take time, it is their belief that “a wider understanding of these 20 concepts by society would be a marked step forward”, and could only lead to a better-informed future.

Professor Spiegelhalter said “These tips could be used as a checklist when confronted with scientific claims. Science is not just a body of facts – it’s important to have a grasp of the process by which conclusions are drawn, and the possible pitfalls on that path”

There is an obvious need to make sure that scientific policy is based on a sound understanding of science; this means making sure that policy-makers know the right things to ask, and how to interpret the answers they get. There have been many suggestions of how to increase the level of scientific knowledge in the political community, from encouraging more scientists to become politicians, to expanding the role of chief scientific advisors. However, none of these solutions fully address the fundamental issue of widespread “scientific ignorance” amongst those who have the ability to vote in parliament.

̽��ֱ��homogeneity of policy makers’ backgrounds shows just how far-reaching this problem is. No member of the current British cabinet has a scientific degree – the closest is Vince Cable, who initially read Natural Sciences at Cambridge before switching to Economics. Six cabinet members read Politics, Philosophy and Economics (PPE) at Oxford, including Ed Davey MP, the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate change. Of Britain’s 650 members of parliament, only Cambridgeshire MP Julian Huppert is a scientist; David Willets MP, the Minister of State for Universities and Science, read PPE.

This list of concepts will teach skills closely related to those that politicians already have, and will help people “understand the quality, limitations and biases of evidence”. This will, in turn, allow better interrogation of those communicating scientific information. By explaining the scientific process, these academics have helped to demystify science and make it accessible to those creating the country’s scientific policy. It is not a question of turning every policy-maker into a scientist, but of arming them with the tools to understand and question the scientific information they receive.

Some of the concepts seem common sense (“Scientists are human”), others less so (“Regression to the mean can mislead”, “Beware the base rate fallacy”). All contain practical advice and recommendations that, if followed, should help policy-makers better interact with science and scientists and understand the limitations of evidence. Though the authors acknowledge that improvements in policy will not happen instantaneously, and that uncertainty is inherent in the scientific method, they nonetheless feel that these concepts are the first step to take if we are to more closely integrate science into political decision-making.

Click here to read the Nature article in full

Aiming to improve policy-makers’ understanding of the imperfect nature of science, academics from the Universities of Cambridge and Melbourne have created a list of concepts that they believe should be part of the education of civil servants, politicians, policy advisers and journalists

Science is not just a body of facts – it’s important to have a grasp of the process by which conclusions are drawn, and the possible pitfalls on that path

Professor David Spiegelhalter

Sir Cam/ ̽��ֱ�� of Cambridge

Dr Pete Wothers giving a chemistry demonstration to an audience at the Cambridge Science Festival including David Willetts, Minister for Universities and Science.

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Yes